During sterile injury or infection, the innate immune system produces cytokines as part of the innate immune response. Molecules such as the cytokines tumour necrosis factor and interleukin-1 as well ...

Reflexes are automatic and involuntary actions the body produces in response to certain stimuli. While some reflexes can involve muscles and movement, others involve internal processes within the body ...

What is the acoustic reflex? When a loud sound stimulus is presented to the ear, there is a reflexive contraction of the minute muscles that are connected to the ossicles in the Middle Ear. When these ...

A tickle in the nose can help trigger a sneeze, expelling irritants and disease-causing pathogens. But the cellular pathways that control the sneeze reflex go far beyond the sinuses and have been ...